Bicycle and Modern Industrial Methods Essay Example for Free

Bicycle and Modern Industrial Methods Essay A bicycle, often called a bike (and sometimes referred to as a pushbike, pedal bike, pedal cycle,or cycle), is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist. Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and now number more than a billion worldwide, twice as many as automobiles. They are the principal means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services, and bicycle racing. The basic shape and configuration of a typical upright, or safety bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling. The bicycles invention has had an enormous effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. Several components that eventually played a key role in the development of the automobile were invented for the bicycle, including ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, and tension-spoked wheels. The dandy horse, also called Draisienne or laufmaschine, was the first human means of transport to use only two wheels in tandem and was invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais. It is regarded as the modern bicycles forerunner; Drais introduced it to the public inMannheim in summer 1817 and in Paris in 1818. Its rider sat astride a wooden frame supported by two in-line wheels and pushed the vehicle along with his/her feet while steering the front wheel. The first mechanically-propelled, two-wheeled vehicle may have been built by Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839, although the claim is often disputed In the early 1860s, Frenchmen Pierre Michauxand Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a new direction by adding a mechanical crank drive with pedals on an enlarged front wheel (thevelocipede). Further innovations increased comfort and ushered in a second bicycle craze, the 1890s Golden Age of Bicycles. In 1888, Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the first practical pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Soon after, the rear freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast.

Why Did Collective Security Fail In The 1930s History Essay

Why Did Collective Security Fail In The 1930s History Essay The 1930s saw the failure of the League of Nations in terms of Collective Security. Several shortcomings and problems resulted on three major crises that proved the League to be helpless. In the grip of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the major powers of the League (Britain and France) were more inclined to a policy of appeasement. Basically a more liberal alternative to the Balance of Theory, Collective Security was the idea that nations should group together in condemnation of any aggressor and pursue sanctions against them, whether economical, diplomatic, or military. This idea was enshrined in Articles 10, 11, and 16 of the Leagues Covenant. There was, however, a major flaw in the Leagues proposal of Collective Security; none of it was enforceable, nations could choose whether or not comply, therefore making it little more than a code of honour, and since when has honour ever been of any value on politics when it comes to each nations interests? The aforementioned articles do not specify any particular sanctions or punishments for offending nations, merely stating that the Council will advise upon the course of action to be taken. Following the major events of the 1930s, the League failed spectacularly in upholding international peace and the Second World War broke out in 1939. The League did not meet once during the war and in 1946, its duties were given to the newly formed United Nations. Aside from the three major crises that occurred (which will be looked into later in this paper) there were some basic problems that prevented Collective Security from ever being a reality. Firstly, the USA preferred an isolationist policy at the time, and was therefore not a member of the League of Nations, and their support and influence was therefore absent from all negotiations. Even thought the Americans would voice their opinion at times, they took no action. In terms of their military, Britain and France were in a very weak state, and the world knew it Therefore, their diplomacy help very little sway as they could not back up their threats with any action; this, plus a lack of Soviet support, meant they could do little but shake their heads at the antics of rogue states such as Germany, Japan, and Italy. Economically, they were also very weak. The Great Depression had hit both nations hard and their defence spending was down. Furthermore, in British politics, it was the common opinion of politicians that the British public cared little for issues far from home. Who among the public would care for the Manchurians, or Ethiopians, or Czechoslovakians? In the grip of such a terrible depression, it is easy to see why the British politicians would only seek to improve conditions at home. They therefore only declared support for economic sanctions, merely to keep a good image in international politics. It is interesting to note that Winston Churchill, when he was Chancellor of the Exchequer, was a strong opponent of appeasement. The first major challenge to Collective Security was the Mukden Incident and subsequent Japanese invasion of Manchuria in China. Japan was as hard hit as any other nation by the depression and sought to overcome its economic problems by creating an empire. At the time, the Japanese had control of the Manchurian railway and it was speculated that they had for a long time intended to invade, but simply waited for an excuse to do so. In 1931, the Japanese claimed the railway in Mukden was sabotaged by Chinese nationalists and proceeded to attack the Chinese army in the region (who had recently executed a Japanese spy). The Chinese forces, knowing that the Japanese simply wanted an excuse to invade, offered very little resistance. In no time at all, the Japanese had launched a full scale invasion and their tenacious and well trained troops had no problem in overcoming the Chinese army. Within weeks, key locations in Manchuria were already in Japanese hands and by February 1932 the whole of Manchuria was captured. The Japanese controlled state of Manchukuo was set up the same year with the former Chinese emperor running it. In response to this, China appealed to the League of Nations to do something about the Japanese attack. The League sent a delegation to Manchuria to look into the issue and come to a conclusion about who was to blame. The delegation, however, took until September that year to conclude that the Japanese were to blame and recommend that Manchuria be returned to the Chinese, something the Japanese ignored. In February 1933, a special League Assembly was held to discuss the matter, in which 40 countries agreed that Japan had acted aggressively without justification and that they had to withdraw from Manchuria, which would be returned to China. The Japanese delegate had said at the meeting, due to the fact that China had only recently emerged from a revolution and was still in the midst of a civil war, that China was not a real country. When an agreement could not be reached, Japan informed the League of its intention to withdraw from it. Japan was no longer a member of the League of Nati ons and in 1933 invaded Jehal, the next Chinese province next to Manchuria. Economic sanctions were suggested at the League but never put into effect because Japans main trade partner, the USA, was not a member of the League. Further, the British had trade interests with Japan and did not want to sever trade with them. The League did not even order a halt on arms sales to the Japanese, in fear of a Japanese declaration of war. The next incident to threaten Collective Security was the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. Ironically, as recently as September 1928, Italy had reaffirmed its Treaty of Friendship with Ethiopia. This was, however, all about to change. The Italians did have some fortified military bases in Ethiopia (without Ethiopian consent it should be added) and because these were never disputed they assumed that the international community recognised it as their right. In December 1934, at a base in Welwel, Ethiopia, an Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission encountered an Italian fortified base. Once the commission had finished, it withdrew, but left behind its Ethiopian military escort. The escort ended up fighting the Italians. Both parties complained of the others guilt. In September 1935, the League of Nations exonerated both parties in this incident. However, due to the delay and the subtlety of the British and French political manoeuvrings, Mussolini perceived the weakness and helplessness of the British and French, and concluded that there were no obstacles in his path. Therefore, on October 3rd, 1935, Italian forces invaded Ethiopia from Eritrea and Italian Somaliland without a declaration of war. Four days later, the League unanimously declared Italy an aggressor but did nothing further. In another display of belligerence, an Italian Baron in Geneva taunted the League of Nations, saying that Italy was ready for war with Europe should they oppose Italys plans, and that peace would soon follow. The Ethiopian armies were no match against Italys modern army with its tanks and aircraft and after seven months of war, Ethiopia was defeated and its emperor, Haile Selassie, had fled the country, much to the disgust of the Ethiopian people. During the wa r, the Italians had even used poison gas against the Ethiopians and the Leagues proposed armaments embargo was ignored. In June the following year, Haile Selassie was in Geneva, and gave a speech to the League of Nations. He said that they had to now decide whether they supported Collective Security, or International Lawlessness. This was all of to avail, as Britain and France soon recognised Italys control of Ethiopia and, also in June, the Italians formed a constitution that joined Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland into one administrative unit, split into 6 provinces. In response to a failed assassination attempt on the Italian commander in Ethiopia, Graziani, the Italians executed 30,000 Ethiopians, mostly from the young and educated in society. Italy had extended its empire as the Leagues members merely dithered and debated among themselves. The third and final crisis that more or less finished off the League and brought about the end of Collective Security was the Munich Agreement and Germanys subsequent invasion of Eastern Europe. The nation of Czechoslovakia was formed in 1919 from territory of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. In a typically cack-handed attempt by the Allies at creating a post-WWI nation, the country had around 7.5million Czechs, 3.2million Germans, 2.3million Slovaks, 560,000 Magyars, and 100,000 Poles. This multiethnic society had many issues, particularly among the Germans, who resented being ruled by others. The Germans were mainly concentrated in an area called the Sudetenland. The Sudeten Germans Peoples Party, formed in 1931, had demanded that the region be given to Germany; a demand ignored by the Czech government because it could encourage other ethnicities in Czechoslovakia to demand independence and because the Sudetenland was very rich in natural resources like lignite and coal. Therefore, in 1938, Adolf Hitler instructed his generals to prepare for the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Although France had signed a defence pact with Czechoslovakia, Hitler was confident that the French would do nothing to interfere in order to avoid war with Germany. The British policy favoured peace above all else because it was simply not in any position to impose any threats on Germany. The might of Britains armed forces was the Royal Navy, which could not access the landlocked nation of Czechoslovakia and the Royal Air Force was still undergoing a change from biplane to monoplane aircraft and was therefore in no fit state for action, especially against Germanys Luftwaffe, whose might Hitler had been displaying for quite some time. Therefore, Neville Chamberlain (prime minister of Britain) and Edouard Deladier (president of France) met with Hitler in a place called Bertesgaden, near Munich, to discuss Germanys claim to the Sudetenland. Chamberlain was informed by his military staff that in the first 60days of fighting alone, despite the capable Czechoslovakian army, over a million Czechoslovakians would be killed by the German bombing alone, necessitating the need for mass graves. The British and French propose that all territory in Czechoslovakia with more than 50% German population should be handed over to Germany. These talks, however, failed, and, at Mussolinis suggestion, Hitler calls for a meeting to be held in Munich between Britain, France, Germany, and Italy to discuss the matter again. It is noteworthy that Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were not invited to these talked, much to the anger of Joseph Stalin. This time, Chamberlain persuades Deladier that they must appease Germany in order to mainta in peace, which he agrees on. Without Czechoslovakian consent, the British and French bowed to Hitlers demands and signed the Munich agreement, giving Germany the Sudetenland and making it clear to the Czechoslovakians that, if they objected, they had to face Germanys army alone. This was done on the condition that Germany would make no further territorial claims. Chamberlain returns to Britain and is hailed as the man who saved Europe from war. The Czechoslovakian frontier guards were ordered to leave their posts; Germany took control of the Sudetenland, and soon violated the agreement by stationing military units in the region. These three incidents in the 1930s completely undermined the whole concept of Collective Security. Collective Security sought to condemn and punish aggressors, to protect the sovereignty of its members, and maintain peace in general. The League of Nations failed in this respect, the biggest proof of this is the Second World War that followed these events. The British and French merely tried to appease the aggressive states, a policy which only delayed war. Furthermore, the USA maintained its isolationist policy until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, when they finally entered the war. The League was powerless to enforce any effective sanctions against offending states, often due to an unwillingness to act on the part of the British and French, their inability to cooperate with Russia, and Americas abstention from taking part. Whether or not the powers could have enforced the Leagues decisions is a debateable point. According to Churchill, the Royal Navy was perfectly capable of sinking any Italian ship in the Mediterranean headed for Ethiopia. It could also be argued that Britain could have used its Navy, in agreement with Frances more considerable Army, to force Germany to come to terms. Although the Royal Navy could not access Czechoslovakia, it could still have threatened to blockade German ports if Germany wanted to invade. Instead, the British signed a treaty with Hitler allowing Germany to have a navy one third the size of Britains. The British and French did not prevent the Italians from using the Suez Canal during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, and the fact that they merely threatened sanctions but did not enforce them achieved nothing but to push Italy into an alliance with Nazi Germany. To top all of this, the Soviets tried to invade Finland in 1939-40. Stalin was worried about the proximity of Leningrad to the Finnish border, which he feared was vulnerable to Nazi artillery fire. When the Soviets attacked, the British and French condemned it, and sent reinforcements to Finland that ousted the Soviets. This seems like the British and French realising, too late, that they had lost the fight for peace. The Second World War began with Germanys violation of the Munich Agreement by invading Poland. Too late the British and French took up arms to fight for peace. Germany already controlled much land beyond its borders, Italy had furthered its imperial ambitions in Africa, and Japan was steadily spreading its empire in Asia and the Pacific. Collective Security had therefore failed in all respects. The First World War was called the War to End All Wars and the League of Nations was established in an effort to prevent another global conflict; it failed, another World War was fought, and the League did not meet once during the 6 years of conflict. In 1946, its duties were transferred to the newly created United Nations. Sources: http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/A-D/Collective-Security-The-1930s-and-the-failure-of-the-league-of-nations.html http://www.johndclare.net/league_of_nations8.htm http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=23501 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/88739.htm http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp http://modern-british-history.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_to_understand_appeasement http://www.johndclare.net/league_of_nations6.htm http://www.johndclare.net/EL5.htm http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWleague.htm http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/czechoslovakia_1938.htm http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212881/invfin.html http://www.country-studies.com/ethiopia/mussolini%27s-invasion-and-the-italian-occupation.html

Are Eyewitness Identifications Reliable?

Are Eyewitness Identifications Reliable? Eyewitness identifications during identification procedures such as show ups, live line ups and photo line ups are reliable to an extent in the forensic discipline, but are mostly fallible when assisting police with their enquiries regarding suspects and offenders, due to the fact that the reliability is dependent on a variety of factors relating to the memory of the witness and situational context of the crime. There are three types of memories: sensory memory, (â€Å"very short duration for which sense-based information is held post exposure† (Lecture (2015)), short – term memory (â€Å"information that can be stored for approximately thirty second without rehearsal† (Lecture (2015)) and long-term memory (â€Å"the unlimited amount of information that can be stored over a lifetime of rehearsal† (Lecture (2015)). The computer memory model refers to the factors relating to the input of information, the passage of time for which the information is stored an d output of eyewitness information through different types of questioning. The input aspect of the computer memory model can be separated into witness and situation categories which include factors such as stress and age. Stress is a crucial factor when determining the reliability of eyewitness identification as it can diminish the accuracy of the memory and is largely dependent on whether the victim or witness has experienced a violent crime such as an armed robbery or aggravated assault. Research studies have been conducted in the area of stress/arousal, concluding that there is a correlation between high anxiety exposure and errors associated with eyewitness memory. Coinciding with this research finding is the correlation between trait anxiety and a significantly lower frequency in errors associated with eyewitness memory. A research study was conducted by the University of London, investigating the effects of high state anxiety on the participant’s abilities to identify and describe the antagonist from a horror labyrinth present in a line up. This was sparked due to the fact that 215 individuals were acquitted after being falsely imprisoned in the United State of America following the re-opening of cases using DNA from the crime scenes(Valentine and Mesout, (2009), page 151). This â€Å"mistaken eyewitness identification was a cause of the miscarriage of justice, of 75% of these cases† (Valentine and Mesout, (2009), page 151). The study consisted of two sample groups; the first sample group consisted of 20 employees from a retail store whose participation helped legitimize the state anxiety inventory. Each employee’s standard heart rate was monitored and recorded during a brisk seven minute walk prior to entering the labyrinth, once entered the participants encountered a frighteni ng individual before continuing on with the exhibit and completing the state anxiety inventory questionnaire forty five minutes later. This sample proved that there was an increase in heart rate which was caused by psychological arousal when entering the London Dungeon. The eyewitness study group consisted of 56 participants and also encountered the scary person in the labyrinth; similarly they completed the state anxiety questionnaire forty five minutes later and a trait anxiety questionnaire followed by a â€Å"written free call description of the scary person† and a â€Å"cue recall† before rating their confidence after completing an impartial photo line-up consisting of nine individuals. The results of the research study concluded that â€Å"participants who reported lower state anxiety recalled more correct descriptors† (Valentine and Mesout, 2009, page 157), which would obviously indicate that â€Å"people who reported higher state anxiety recalled fewer correct details† (Valentine and Mesout,2009, page 157) of the antagonist. Furthermore, â€Å"participants who reported high state anxiety were less likely to correctly identify the [scary person]† (Valentine and Mesout, 2009, page 158), which is statistically shown as â€Å"only 17% of eyewitness[es] correctly identified the person from a nine-person culprit-present photograph line-up† (Valentine and Mesout, 2009, page 159). Additionally, there is a link between sex and state anxiety suggesting that male eyewitnesses are more accurate in their identification in comparison to their female counter-parts, which could be due to the fact the females experienced higher anxiety levels than males in London Dungeon (Valentine and Mesout, 2009, page 158, 159). However, regardless of the different results between sexes and state anxiety, overall the results clearly indicate that psychological arousal experienced during exposure to high stress situations for both genders, si gnificantly affects the ability of eyewitnesses to recall information and recognize culprits during identification procedures, which diminishes their reliability. Similarly, a field study was also conducted during U.S Army survival school training, which was imperative for gaining optimal research results rather than research studies conducted in laboratories. The investigation was conducted on â€Å"five hundred and nine†¦ active –personnel enrolled in military survival school training† (Morgan et al., 2004, page 3). The participants were separated into four different studies, each focusing on a specific identification procedure when attempting to recognize instructors during simulated high and low stress interrogations during the prisoner of war camp phase of training. Of the 228 participants in the first study group which focused on the live line-up method of identification, 188 participants were interrogated by two instructors while 40 participants were interrogated by one instructor (Morgan et al., 2004). The second study group consisted of 114 subjects which focused on the photo line-up method of identification (Morgan et al., 2004). The third group comprised of 167 participants who focused on the photo line-up method while under high stress and lastly the fourth group focused on the photo line-up identification method while under low stress (Morgan et al., 2004). Following the interrogations and according to the identification method their study group focused on, each participant was required to identify the instructors present in the questioning. The results confirmed the general point of view that by exposing individuals to high stress situations, the subject’s ability to recognize the target person was impaired due to the overwhelming influx of emotions the participant experienced at the time. The data collated suggests that the criminal justice system would benefit substantially in reducing the number of cases of innocently imprisoned individuals, if law enforcement agencies shifted their attention towards the sequential method of eyewitness identification. Statistics indicate that th e sequential photo method is considerably accurate than the live line-up and photo –spread method (Morgan et al., 2004). This is due to that fact that study group 3 and 4 scored the lowest in high stress situations; â€Å"49%†(Morgan et al., 2004, page 8) in their ability to â€Å"correctly identified their interrogator† (Morgan et al., 2004, page 7) , â€Å"100%†(Morgan et al., 2004, page 8 ) in their ability to â€Å"correctly identified that their interrogator was not present in the †¦ sequential presentation of photos† (Morgan et al., 2004, page 7), and recorded fewer errors â€Å"(51%)†(Morgan et al., 2004) in their ability to â€Å"not pick their true interrogator â€Å"(Morgan et al., 2004, page 7), in comparison to study group 1 and 2, who were focusing on alternative identification methods. Furthermore, evidence suggests that eyewitness identifications can be increasingly reliable during high stress situations with the aid of cued photographs (49%)(Morgan et al., 2004, page 9) than without (â€Å"66%†)(Morgan et al., 2004, page 9 ). Nevertheless, regardless of different identification procedures, the reliability of eyewitnesses to recall and recognize the target person under high anxiety is steadily lower compared to low anxiety situations. Like stress, the ability of eyewitnesses to correctly identify the target person during procedures of recognition, is dependent on the age of the witness therefore only reliable to an extent. Most research studies conducted conclude with findings indicating that the ability to accurately identify the culprit is higher among teenagers and young adults, in comparison to middle aged and older adults, as the common conception is that with age comes reduced facial recognition due to impaired memory. However, most of these research studies include young assailants therefore failing to recognise that eyewitness identifications of older adults are reliable to an extent, if the trigger person is of the same age. A research study group conducted two experiments in London, experiment 1 consisted of â€Å"113† [random]†¦Caucasian male† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 645) participants, who were inexperienced in identification procedures and were selected from either their â€Å"workplace leisure area or around the university† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 645). The subjects were then divided in two sample groups depending on their age, â€Å"between 18 and 25† or†¦ 35 and 55 years old† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 645). Both sample groups comprised of approximately half young adults and half middle aged adults, and were assigned to either a â€Å"1-day or [a] â€Å"1-week condition† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 645). Participants were required to independently view four videos for which â€Å"two showed a car being stolen [(by one young culprit in the first video and one adult culprit in the second video)] and two showed a television being stolen [(by one young culprit and one adult culprit)]† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 645). Volunteers were then required to accurately identify the trigger person in a culprit present photo line-up consisting of â€Å"six fillers and one culprit† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 645), a day or week later. Results collated indicate that middle aged adults assigned to the one day condition find it notably difficult in identifying young offenders, scoring only 24% in the ability to positively identify the younger culprit (Wright Stroud, 2002). Results continued to decline for middle aged adults assigned to the one week condition as they were only 20% accurate in positively identifying the younger culprit in comparison to younger adults, scoring 47% in their accuracy after one day and 29% after one week (Wright Stroud, 2002). However, results indicate that although middle aged adults struggled to accurately identify the young assailant in the one day condition, their ability to positively identify there same age culprit scored 47% in accuracy. Experiment 2 was conducted similarly, although it explored if age biases were present during culprit absent photo line-ups. The study consisted of an additional â€Å"180† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 649) subjects which were divided again into two separate age groups ranging from â€Å"18 and 33 or between 40 and 55 years old† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 649). Researchers also removed the one week condition from the experiment as â€Å"effect size was largest for the 1-day delay† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 649) in the first experiment. Participants viewed the four crime videos again and were then required to accurately identify the trigger person in a culprit present or culprit absent photo line-up. Among both age groups, the accuracy of subjects increased by 10% when the assailant and filler were of the same age of the participant’s during the culprit present line-up (Wright Stroud, 2002) , which was also evident in first experiment. However, during culprit absent photo line-up, the statistics indicated that â€Å"own age biases† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 652) exist only with culprit present photo line-ups due to the fact that middle aged adults won’t â€Å"be more likely than younger participants to identify an innocent young suspect, but they will be more likely to fail to identify a guilty young culprit† (Wright Stroud, 2002, page 652). Similarly, a research study was conducted with broader younger and older age groups, ranging from â€Å"16-33 years and †¦ 60- 82 year[s] [old]† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 44). The study consisted of â€Å"172† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 44) volunteers for which younger participants were selected from their respective â€Å"local colleges† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 44) ,while older participants were selected based on their reply to local flyers in â€Å"local centres, clubs, and societies† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 44). Participants were required to participate in a â€Å"face-source recollection task† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 45) prior to watching two videos for which there was a young offender or older offender engaging in a criminal activity. Subjects were then â€Å"assigned to the delay or immediate test condition [session]† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 46) and took part in â€Å"two line-ups with the perpetrator [either] present or †¦.absent† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 46). They were then subsequently made to repeat the facial recollection task for which participants needed to identify â€Å"old (seen in session 1) or new (not seen in session 1)† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 46) faces. The median statistics of younger versus older adults indicate the same results as of experiment 1 and 2 of the previous article, that overall, younger participants were able to correctly identify the culprit (â€Å".86†) (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 46) regardless of time delay in comparison to older participants (â€Å".49†) (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003,page 46). However, the most notably important relationship of the statistics, is the correlation between the accurate recognition of culprits among both age groups and the â€Å"measure of source recollection derived from a separate face-recognition task† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 43). Results reveal that older adults recorded noticeably poorer on the task thus indicating that â€Å"source-recollection deficits are partially responsible for age-related differences in performance of the line-up task† (Memon, Bartlett, Rose Gray, 2003, page 43). Mistaken identification by eyewitnesses during show up, live line-up and photo line-up procedures, contribute significantly to the number of unjustly imprisoned individuals, some of which (340) have already been executed. Almost all research studies conclude with contradictory evidence to one another however there are clear patterns among results of factors, which influence the reliability of eyewitness recall and recognition. The situational factor of witness stress/psychological arousal, determines the extent for which eyewitness recall are dependable on during testimonies. Exposure to high stress situations, increase state anxiety, which diminishes the dependability of eyewitness memory recall across both genders. Variables such as gender differences also indicate that women in comparison to men are less accurate in their ability to identify and describe the trigger person. However, the assistance of cued photographs during sequential photo method identification procedures, have p roven to increase accuracy of descriptors and facial recognition of the perpetrator, which if implemented across the criminal justice system, would increase the reliability of eyewitness identifications along with reducing the number of innocently imprisoned citizens. Strict guidelines for unbiased questioning during eyewitnesses interviews, would also reduce suggestibility and implanted false memories. The most contradictory research evidence stems from the accuracy of younger and older eyewitnesses. Although studies generally show that younger adults are more accurate in either identifying or describing culprits, these studies fail to recognise that to an extent, that younger adults are only higher in their accuracy rates, due to the fact that young culprits are mostly used across all studies. Eyewitness reliability in terms of age was dependant on a variety of factors. Firstly, experiments conducted have shown that there is a correlation between higher accuracy results of older adults and their ability to identify same age (older) culprits in target present line-ups. Secondly, time also played a crucial factor as accuracy of both age groups were dependant on short or long delays in recognition, with older participants decreasing in accuracy with increasing time. However overall, younger participants were slightly more accurate regardless of age difference and time delay. This wou ld indicate that immediate questioning and identification procedures would increase the accuracy of identifications for older eyewitnesses. By Mathew Franczak References Wright, D., Stroud, J. (2002). Age differences in lineup identification accuracy: People are better with their own age. Law And Human Behavior, 26(6), 641-654. doi:10.1023/a:1020981501383 Valentine, T., Mesout, J. (2009). Eyewitness identification under stress in the London Dungeon. Appl. Cognit. Psychol., 23(2), 151. doi:10.1002/acp.1463 Morgan, C., Hazlett, G., Doran, A., Garrett, S., Hoyt, G., Thomas, P. et al. (2004). Accuracy of eyewitness memory for persons encountered during exposure to highly intense stress. International Journal Of Law And Psychiatry, 27(3), 265-279. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2004.03.004 Memon, A., Bartlett, J., Rose, R., Gray, C. (2003). The Aging Eyewitness: Effects of Age on Face, Delay, and Source-Memory Ability. The Journals Of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences And Social Sciences, 58(6), P338-P345. doi:10.1093/geronb/58.6.p338 The Mitochondria: Structure, Functions and Reactions The Mitochondria: Structure, Functions and Reactions Mitochondria are rod-shaped structures that are enclosed within two membranes the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins. The space in between the two membranes is called the inter-membrane space. The structure of the various components of mitochondria are as follows: The outer membrane is a relatively simple phospholipid bilayer, containing protein structures called porins. Ions, nutrient molecules, ATP, ADP, etc. can pass through the outer membrane with ease. The inner membrane is freely permeable only to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water. Its structure is highly complex, including all of the complexes of the electron transport system, the ATP synthetase complex, and transport proteins. There are folds present which are organized into lamillae (layers), called the cristae. The cristae greatly increase the total surface area of the inner membrane which makes room for many more of the above-named structures than if the inner me mbrane were shaped like the outer membrane. The membranes create two compartments. The intermembrane space is the region between the inner and outer membranes. It has an important role in the primary function of mitochondria, which is oxidative phosphorylation. The matrix is a complex mixture of enzymes that are important for the synthesis of ATP molecules, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNAs and the mitochondrial DNA. Besides these, it has oxygen, carbon dioxide and other recyclable intermediates. In glycolysis, what type of reactions do hexokinase and phosphofructokinase catalyze? In general, what is the importance of these reactions or in other words what makes them unique in the glycolysis pathway? The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinases to form glucose 6-phosphate (G6P). This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low, promoting continuous transport of glucose into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out because the cell lacks transporters for G6P. Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is a glycolytic enzyme that catalyzes the irreversible transfer of a phosphate from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate. Because this reaction is irreversible, PFK is the key regulatory enzyme for glycolysis. When ATP levels are high in the cell, the cell no longer needs metabolic energy production to occur. In this case, PFKs activity is inhibited by allosteric regulation by ATP itself, closing the valve on the flow of carbohydrates through glycolysis. In general, how are fats and proteins utilized during cellular metabolism? Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen , and sometimes other atoms. They form the cellular structural elements, are biochemical catalysts, and are important regulators of gene expression . Digestion breaks protein down to amino acids. If amino acids are in excess of the bodys biological requirements, they are metabolized to glycogen or fat and subsequently used for energy metabolism. If amino acids are to be used for energy their carbon skeletons are converted to acetyl CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle for oxidation, producing ATP. The final products of protein catabolism include carbon dioxide, water, ATP, urea, and ammonia. What two molecules combine in the TCA cycle to form Citrate? Where did each precursor molecule come from? The Citric Acid cycle begins with acetyl-CoA transferring its two-carbon acetyl group to the four-carbon acceptor compound called oxaloacetate to form a six-carbon compound called citrate. Acetly-CoA is created when from the reaction of pyruvate dehydrogenase. Oxaloacetate is created from a combination of pyruvate carboxylase and Malate dehydrogenase. Would you expect to find the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in an anaerobic bacterium? Explain why or why not and explain what task this complex performs. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is a complex of three enzymes that transform pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation which involves the oxidation of pyruvate. Since anaerobic bacterium only exists in oxygen-free environments you would not expect them to contain this complex. What are high energy electrons and what is represented by an oxidation-reduction potential? Using this knowledge briefly explain the importance of Figure 5.14 and the role of the high energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 in the creation of ATP. Why are the electron transport chain complexes referred to as proton pumps? Electron transport chains are biochemical reactions that produce ATP. ATP is made by an enzyme called ATP synthase. ATP synthase is powered by a transmembrane proton gradient, which conduct protons from high to low concentration across the membrane. In essence working to pump protons through a proton channel which temporarily opens in the inner membrane How are NADH and FADH2 different when it comes to interacting with the ETC? NADH+H+ arrives from Stage II of carbohydrate metabolism or Stage III (TCA cycle) to the ETC and immediately oxidizes to NAD+ with its protons (hydrogen ions) going into the matrix and its electrons (e-) going to cytochrome complex 1. As the electrons arrive on cyctrochrome complex 1 the complex immediately goes through redox (reduction and oxidation). This reaction creates a proton pump within the cytochrome, pumping some protons from the matrix through the cytochrome into the intermembrane space. The electrons now transfer to mobile carrier Q and NAD+ returns to its original source. FADH2 arrives from the TCA cycle to the ETC and goes directly to cytochrome mobile carrier Q. FADH2 oxidizes to FAD with its protons going into the matrix and its electrons going to mobile carrier Q. Mobile carrier Q shuttles the electrons from FADH2 (and from cytochrome 1) to cytochrome complex 2. The electrons are transferred to cytochrome complex 2 and it immediately goes through redox (reduction and oxidation). This creates a proton pump, pumping protons from the matrix through cytochrome complex 2 directly into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion. FAD returns to the TCA cycle. What does the proton-motive force represent (you dont need to explain the formula)? A proton-motive force represents the energy that is generated by the transfer of protons or electrons across an energy-transducing membrane. Describe the structure of ATP synthase and the binding change hypothesis of mitochondrial ATP production. ATP synthase is made up of two portions, F1 and F0. The FO portion is within the membrane of the mitochnodria and the F1 portion is above the membrane, inside the matrix of the mitochondria. The binding change mechanism involves the active site of a ÃŽÂ ² subunit cycling between three states. In the open state, ADP and phosphate enter the active site. The protein then closes up around the molecules and binds them loosely the loose state. The enzyme then undergoes another change in shape and forces these molecules together, with the active site in the resulting tight state binding the newly-produced ATP molecule with very high affinity. Finally, the active site cycles back to the open state, releasing ATP and binding more ADP and phosphate, ready for the next cycle of ATP production. Describe the structure of a chloroplast and give a brief summary of its evolutionary origin. The chloroplast is the organelle where photosynthesis occurs in photosynthetic eukaryotes. The organelle is surrounded by a double membrane. Inside the inner membrane is a complex mix of enzymes and water. This is called stroma and is important as the site of the dark reactions, more properly called the Calvin cycle. Within in the stroma is a network of stacked sacs. Each stack is called a granum and each of the flattened sacs which make up the granum is called a thylakoid. Each thylakoid has a series of photosystems and associated proteins. The photosystems contain chlorophyll and other pigments and all these associated structures in the thylakoid membrane are the site for the light reactions in which light energy is converted to chemical energy needed for the Calvin cycle in the dark reaction. Chloroplasts are believed to have arisen as free living bacteria that became endosymbiont with the ancestors of photosynthetic eukaryotes. An endosymbiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism. Briefly describe the experiment performed by Ruben and Kamen and describe what this experiment helped to prove. Ruben and Kamen bombarded graphite in the cyclotron, a type of particle accelerator,in hopes of producing a radioactive isotope of carbon that could be used as a tracer in investigating chemical reactions in photosynthesis. Their experiment resulted in production of carbon-14. What is the photosynthetic role of the light-harvesting antenna pigments? In photosynthetic systems a variable number of pigments act as light-harvesting antenna to absorb and direct solar energy to photochemical reaction centers. The effectiveness of the reaction centers depends on the efficient transfer of excitation energy from these antenna molecules. In plants, what are photosystems, what is the significance of the primary P680 and P700 pigments, and how do these fit into the Z scheme arrangement depicted in Figure 6.10 of your text? Photosystems are protein complexes that are found in the thylakoid membranes of plants. They are involved in photosynthesis as enzymes which use light to reduce molecules. There are two families of photosystems. Within photosystem type 1 is the P700 reaction center. Its absorption spectrum peaks at 700 nm. When photosystem I absorbs light, an electron is excited to a higher energy level in the P700 chlorophyll. These electrons are moved in pairs in an oxidation/reduction process from P700 to electron acceptors. Within photosystem type II is the P680 reaction center. Its absorption spectrum peaks at 680nm. What is photolysis and what is its significance during photosynthesis? Photolysis is defind as the splitting or decomposition of a chemical compound by means of light energy or photons. Photolysis is the part of photosynthesis that occurs in the granum of a chloroplast where light is absorbed by chlorophyll, turned into chemical energy, and used to split apart the oxygen and hydrogen in water. The oxygen is released as a byproduct while the reduced hydrogen acceptor makes its way to the second stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle. What is photophosphorylation and how is this accomplished by PSII and PSI? Photophosphorylation is the production of ATP using the energy of sunlight. In photophosphorylation, light energy is used to create a high-energy electron donor and a lower-energy electron acceptor. Electrons then move spontaneously from donor to acceptor through an electron transport chain. When a special chlorophyll molecule of PSII absorbs a photon, an electron in this molecule attains a higher energy level. Because this state of an electron is very unstable, the electron is transferred from one to another molecule creating a chain of redox reactions, called an electron transport chain (ETC). The electron flow goes from PSII to cytochrome b6f to PSI. In PSI the electron gets the energy from another photon. The final electron acceptor is NADP. Cytochrome b6f and ATP synthase are working together to create ATP. This process is called photophosphorylation What is the function of Rubisco? In the Calvin Cycle of photosynthesis, the enzyme rubisco grabs CO2 and incorporates it into RuBP (commonly called carbon fixation). The cycle continues until one G3P is made; a precursor to glucose. What is the usefulness or function of the the 12 GAP molecules produced by the fixation of 6 CO2 molecules via the Calvin cycle? The function is for the manufacturing of carbohydrates What is the function of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and what advantage is given to plants that contain this enzyme? Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase is an enzyme in the family of carboxy-lyases that catalyzes the addition of CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate. Carbon fixation via PEP carboxylase assimilates the available CO2 into a four-carbon compound (oxaloacetate, which is further converted to malate) that can be stored or shuttled between plant cells. This allows for a separation of initial CO2 fixation by contact with air and secondary CO2 fixation into sugars by RuBisCO during the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. In succulent CAM plants adapted for growth in very dry conditions, PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 during the night when the plant opens its stomata to allow for gas exchange. During the day time, the plant closes the stomata to preserve water and releases CO2 inside the leaf from the storage compounds produced during the night. This allows the plants to thrive in dry climates by conducting photosynthesis without losing water through open stomata during the day.

Neurology and Neurosurgery Essay -- Medical Brain Health Essays

Neurology and Neurosurgery Neurology Overview Although our primary interest is with the Medial Temporal Lobe, also called the V5 area, a discussion of the entire motion perception pathway is instructive. Motion perception actually begins with the specialized visual receptors in the retina known as M-cells (from the Latin word magnus, for large). As the name implies, the M-cells are relatively large, located in the peripheral retina, and respond quickly to transient visual stimulation making them ideally suited for motion detection. By contrast, P-cells are smaller, located in the fovea, react more slowly to stimuli, and are suited to fine-detail vision. Impulses from the retina then travel via the optic nerve to the optic chiasm where fibers of the optic nerve from the inner (nasal) half of each retina cross while those from the outside (temporal) half of each retina stay on the same side. This partial crossing is a feature of mammals, whereas for most vertebrates below mammals, all the fibers cross. It must be pointed out that no motion processing is actually done in the optic chiasm. About 20% of the axons leaving the optic chiasm go to the Superior Colliculus, which is responsible for certain eye movements and spatial localization. The remaining 80% of the axons go to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, LGN (Schiffman, 2000, p. 71-73). The LGN represents the next motion processing step after the M-cells in the retina. The Magnocellular Division of the LGN specifically processes the impulses from the M- cells in the retina and is uniquely suited to distinguishing small contrasts between light and dark areas thereby enhancing three-dimensionality and motion ef... ..., J. W. (2004). Biological Psychology (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson-Wadsworth. Naikar, N. (1996). Perception of apparent motion of colored stimuli after commissurotomy. Neuropsychologia, 34(11),1041- 1049. Nawrot, M., Rizzo, M., Rockland, K.S., Howard, M. (2000). A transient deficit of motion perception. Vision Research, (40),3435-3446. Schiffman, H.R. (2000). Sensation and Perception (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Ulbert, I., Karmos, G., Heit, G., & Halgren, E. (2001). Early discrimination of coherent versus incoherent motion by multiunit and synaptic activity in human putative MT+. Human Brain Mapping, 13(4),226-238. Vaina, L.M., Cowey, A., LeMay, M., Bienfang, D.C., & Kikinis, R. (2002). Visual deficits in a patient with kaleidoscopic disintegration of the visual world. European Journal of Neurology, (9),463-477.

language in presidential debates :: essays research papers

Language was a very important tool in the 2004 presidential campaign. The way that both John Kerry and President George W. Bush used language was extremely important in this election. The way a candidate uses language can make people feel connected if used effectively and aloof is used ineffectively. There are many components of language such as word choice, vocabulary, repetition of words, and dialect used in political discourse. Each candidate used several of these components in their campaigns. I will analyze a speech from each candidate and focus on how effectively or ineffectively each candidate used language in the 2004 presidential election.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to best analyze political discourse in the 2004 presidential campaign it is important to look at the different uses of language in each candidate’s campaign. John Kerry used several components of language throughout his campaign. In his speech given at the Democratic National Convention many of these components were displayed. Kerry delivered the speech in Boston on the 29th of July 2004. Kerry opened his speech by giving his audience a positive message about America and its future, saying, â€Å"We are here tonight because we love our country. We are proud of what America is and what it can become† (Command). This opening is very common in political discourse, it conveys a very positive message filled with hope and also unites his audience using the pronoun â€Å"we†. Kerry also uses other language components to connect with his audience and their ideologies. Speaking about his mother, Kerry says: She was my den mother when I was a Cub Scout and she was so proud of her fifty year pin as a Girl Scout leader. She gave me her passion for the environment. She taught me to see trees as the cathedrals of nature. And by the power of her example, she showed me that we can and must finish the march towards full equality for women in this country. (Command) Kerry uses a powerful simile when he refers to trees as cathedrals of nature. Kerry uses word choice and vocabulary to convey his passion for the environment but by using the word cathedral he also shows his connection with religion. Kerry’s word choice is very important because it helps present to his audience a candidate who is concerned with both religion and the environment. Religion and the environment were important issues in this year’s election.

Filipino Philosophy Essay

Filipino Philosophy is the attitude, worldview, and notion of the natural citizens of the Philippines towards the day-to-day experiences in life, religion, communication, survival, interrelationship with people and intra-relationship with his sakop or to oneself – the â€Å"I,† and the uplifting of one’s soul – the Filipino being. Filipinos are used to be stereotyped as the bamboo grass for it always sway with the wind. The Filipino people has gone through tough and rough times, good and bounty years, and yet they always stand as firm as it was on the day our ancestors fought Magellan. Our own worldview explains why we stand all erect despite economic downfall, political crisis, natural calamities. One thing that is to be observed, everything revolves in relationships, in the sakop, in the upliftment of one’s soul. Justice for the Filipino people is the satisfaction of the needs of the self and his relations. These and more is the pattern of Filipinos which leads to the general behavior of the nation – the philosophy of the Filipinos. It is the critical examination of the grounds for the fundamental beliefs of Filipino being as an individual and as a universal; likewise it is an analysis of the basic concepts employed in the expression of their worldview. Included in this study is the study of Filipino worldview from different tribal groups to mainland people and to the new generation of the modern times. Since it is a study and the Filipinos have a diversity of life as it has a seven thousand one hundred islands, there should also be different branches of Filipino Philosophy of which I categorize as: (1) Ethnolinguistic-Tribal Philosophy where Bicolano, Cebuano, Tagalog, Ilocano Philosphies would fall under; (2) Filipino Philosophy of Religion; (4) Animism and Practices of Filipinos; and (5) other Filipino Phylosophies that Filipino scholars may add and institutionalize that is not or only partially influenced by the Western Philosophy and purely in the Filipino context. Ethnolinguistic-Tribal Philosophy will further explain and discuss the main ideas and the worldviews of the linguistic groups in the country. Particulars bring about the general. Each particular small group philosophies combines into one distinct philosophy which is the Filipino Philosophy. What unites it or what is common among the philosophies? The self or the â€Å"I,† or that individual characteristic – sakop orientedness. The Filipino is more others-centered than self-centered. Filipino basic personality is made up of Filipino beliefs and knowledge that are equated and related to various rituals and formal and informal education passed from generation to generation. The family contributes to and maintains the Filipino values and to the individual self most specially that the Family is part of the â€Å"self† being the â€Å"sakop.† Filipinos value family highly and rely on family relations in defining and seeking help for problems or disorders. The family name is valued more highly than that of the individual. These values bind the individual to the family, making him/her to consider how a decision will impact the family. The Filipino cannot be discussed on a person by person basis. Unlike western practices, a Filipino is not complete without his relationships A Filipino cannot be defined sans family †¦ these are his essential relationships — with one another, with family — and no Pinoy is truly Pinoy without them. This relationship-seeking attitude is most evident when introducing Filipinos in every corner of the country. The basic unit of the Philippine social organization is the family that includes the mother, father and children, and the bilateral extended family that embraces all relatives of the father and the mother. Of special importance is the sibling group, the unit formed by brothers and sisters. There are no clans or similar unilateral kinship groups in the Philippines. The elementary family and the sibling group form the primary bases of corporate action. The Philippine society is characterized as familial. This means that the influence of kinship, which centers on the family, is far-reaching. The Filipino family is the nuclear unit around which social activities are organized – it is the basic unit of corporate action. The interests of the individual in Philippine society are secondary to those of the family. Filipinos have a unique way of establishing kinship without actual blood relations. â€Å"Pakikiramdam† or known as Smooth Interpersonal Relationships is the core identity of the Filipino. It is a natural skill for all Filipinos to read between the lines. He has this internal language to sense the surrounding. Filipinos rarely get involved if they have no personal concern regarding the activity or the project. A Filipino will exert more effort when he/she is related to that specific given task or his name and the name of the â€Å"sakop† is involved. Along with this also arises the need for a personal touch. A simple personal invitation is a hundred times more regarded than any formal written invitation. Filipinos likes to be invited even if it is only a joke and even if it is an occasion within the clan or nearby neighborhood. A neglect of this personality leads to misunderstanding or â€Å"pagdaramdam.† Filipinos usually like to associate themselves with a higher power and, in return, submit to this higher person if the need arises. This is most likely true to the â€Å"Masa† and even to elite people of the Philippines. It becomes the source of their strength and the source of a wall to lean on in times of crisis and in job seeking opportunities. Filipinos value small-group centeredness which can be seen from the word ofkami. A Filipino has a â€Å"barkada† aside from his immediate family where he/she can pour out his/her angst and happy moments with. It is the ultimate manifestation of small-group centeredness because it is a tight bond among friends which dictate what the group would think, do or say. Amor propio, the stubborn pride that Filipinos possess and hold on to despite the situation is another distinct element of being a Filipino. The expression wala ka namang pakikisama easily coerces Filipinos to act in peculiar manners especially if the pakikisama is determined by the barkada. Pakikisama is very important in a group, in a workplace, and in areas where there is a social group. Another characteristic is that Filipinos seek to succeed and make himself a person in his own right. It may be a show of being bida and sikat all the time that is a manifestation of pasiklaban, the Filipino does this only to share his glory with his family. Therefore, the Filipino is not inconsistent with the established fact that Filipinos are others-centered because his pagsasarili is a result of his desire to uplift his family or his loved ones – others-centeredness-responsibility. Hiya is a Filipino social behavior regulator that prevents a Filipino from violating a norm, a family value, and a group goal. This is also the root of the Smooth Interpersonal Relationships that Filipinos highly prize. This is the golden rule among Filipinos in the sense that a Filipino makes it a point not to intentionally embarass a person just as he wouldn’t want to be embarassed by another. Euphemism is an important Filipino procedure for all relationships. This tactfulness mirrors the Smooth Interpersonal Relationship that Filipinos highly regard. In the interdependent Philippine society, reciprocity is an essential to all relationships. Utang-na-loob, a Filipino is indebted to another until such a favor is returned in kind. This utang na loob is very much rampant in 95 % of Filipinos specially those who are native of the Philippines and among Filipinos in other countries. Utang na loob may stem from Hiya or mainly from the uniqueness of the Filipino â€Å"self.† Many of the provinces of the Philippines are separated from each other by water because the Philippines is an archipelago. Large islands, Luzon and Mindanao have mountain ranges also separate different land areas. As a result of the physical isolation from each other, Filipinos have a rich, multi-cultural heritage and speak 150 different languages and dialects. It must be noted that even though Filipinos speak many languages, there are only eight major languages based on the number of speakers: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Hiligaynon/Ilonggo, Waray, Bikolano, Pangasinense, and Kapampangan. Of these, Filipino, which is based onTagalog and was formerly spelled as ‘Pilipino,’ is the official language along with English. Most textbooks, laws, signboards and mass media are either in English or Filipino. From this language barrier and indifferences come out regionalism which dates back from the the colonial past of the Philippines under Spain and the United States. Spaniards encouraged regionalism to dissipate any nationalist revolt against them. They practiced a â€Å"divide and rule† policy wherein they employed Filipino soldiers from one region to put down an uprising in another region. In addition, Spanish friars, in their desire to evangelize, studied the native tongues and incorporated Catholicism into Filipino social customs and religious observances. In doing so, the Spaniards preserved the native languages and dialects of the Filipinos. They also implanted Roman Catholicism in the Philippines, and influenced the Philippine legal system, social institutions, literature and arts. Meanwhile, the American colonial rule also unwittingly encouraged regionalism.[11]. Language differences and regionalism are just a few factors of the rich cultural herritage and behaviors of individual – tribes in context – that give color and blend of Filipino Philosophy. major factors influencing Filipino Philosophy are its Education, Language and Geography, Western and Eastern Philosophies, and most especially Religion. Education shapes the mind of individuals. It is the way of acquiring and disseminating knowledge. Through education, cultures, thoughts and ideas, concepts and theories are handed down from one generation to another. It is by education that we learn the Western thoughts and their civilization which we try to imitate and to live-out. It is by education that we inculcate to the next generation, the ideal self and the justified and unjustified, true and false beliefs. Language and Geography determine the type of the desires, the taste and the perceptions of the people. It is one of the major factors contributing to the indifferences of major cultures in the Philippines most especially that the country is separated by water. Culture takes part in the molding of history and of man. And the rest, together with culture and history runs in circle around the development and of the nature of Filipino Philosophy. Culture, like history, modifies the worldview of the Filipinos. For every ethno-linguistic community, society, province or region whatever you want to call it, every individual or the whole group has its own worldview on how to enrich, practice, and show his or her own culture. Despite the indifferences of cultural background and ancestral indifferences, the Filipino worldview in the context of the self has never changed. Culture is passed from generation to generation through time (history), through psychological time, but the self being that self, which is others-oriented-kin-related-self, remains the same as it is. In this regard, the Filipino self is unique and his worldview, which is to be in harmony with all that is around him or her, is true to every Filipino from age to age and from culture to culture. Filipino Philosophy is unique in itself and is a pride of the Filipino people. It doesn’t matter which general worldview it belongs. What matters is that the country that belongs to the eastern coast has a philosophy that is distinct and rich in itself. The choice is left to the people whether to take it as a material for its national pride and left to the critics, the Filipino philosophers and scholars if they push our philosophy to the limits and to the level of other philosophies or to drag it down. For it shapes the Philippine politics, economics, justice system, and the rest of that which revolves in the society of the country. A Filipino has two major ways of dealing with his society depending upon the basis of relatedness to the self. Individuals always value pakikitungo, pakikisalamuha, pakikisama to people whom he does not know; and likewise, he/she deals on how to be in harmony with the related individuals to his life – involvement and â€Å"pakikiisa† are two very important values to consider.

Services

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality 2 2-2 Variations of the Gaps Model Five Service Quality Gaps Variations of the Gaps Model Six Service Quality Gaps Variations of the Gaps Model 13 Service Quality Gaps (Gaps Model gone wild) Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality ? The Customer Gap ? (Sometimes referred to as Gap 5) 2 ? The Provider Gaps: ? Gap 1 – The Listening Gap ? not knowing what customers expect Gap 2 – The Service Design and Standards Gap ? not having the right service designs and standards ? Gap 3 – The Service Performance Gap ? not delivering to service standards ? Gap 4 – The Communication Gap ? not matching performance to promises ? Putting It All Together: Closing the Gaps 2-6 Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality 2 †¢ The Customer Gap Chapter 3 – Customer Expectations of Service Chapter 4 – Customer Perceptions of Service 2-7 Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality 2 Gap 1 – Not Knowing What Customers Expect (The Knowledge Gap) Chapter 5 – Listening to Customers through Research Chapter 6 – Building Customer Relationships Chapter 7 – Service Recovery 2-8 Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality 2 †¢ Gap 2 – Not Having the Right Service Quality Designs and Standards (The Service Design and Standards Gap) Chapter 8 – Service Innovation and Design Chapter 9– Customer-Defined Service Standards Chapter 10 – Physical Evidence and the Servicescape 2-9 Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality 2Gap 3 – Not Delivering to Service Standards (The Service Performance Gap) Chapter 11 – Employees’ Roles in Service Delivery Cha pter 12 – Customers’ Roles in Service Delivery Chapter 13 – Managing Demand and Capacity 2-10 Chapter Conceptual Framework of the Book: The Gaps Model of Service Quality 2 Gap 4 – Not Matching Performance to Promises (The Communication Gap) Chapter 14 – Integrated Service marketing Communications Chapter 15 – Pricing of Services 2-11 Objectives for Chapter 2: The Gaps Model of Service Quality ? Introduce the framework, called the gaps model of service quality, used to organize this textbook. Demonstrate that the gaps model is a useful framework for understanding service quality in an organization. ? Demonstrate that the most critical service quality gap to close is the customer gap, the difference between customer expectations and perceptions. ? Show that four gaps that occur in companies, which we call provider gaps, are responsible for the customer gap. ? Identify the factors responsible for each of the four provider gaps. 2-12 Gaps Model of Service Quality 2-13 The Customer Gap Think about a service you receive. Is there a gap between your expectations and perceptions of that service?What do you expect that you do not receive? 2-14 Key Factors Leading to the Customer Gap Customer Gap Customer Expectations ? Provider Gap 1: Not knowing what customers expect ? Provider Gap 2: Not selecting the right service designs and standards ? Provider Gap 3: Not delivering to service standards ? Provider Gap 4: Not matching performance to promises Customer Perceptions 2-15 Gaps Model of Service Quality ? Customer Gap: ? difference between customer expectations and perceptions ? Provider Gap 1 (Listening Gap): ? not knowing what customers expect ? Provider Gap 2 (Service Design & Standards Gap): not having the right service designs and standards ? Provider Gap 3 (Service Performance Gap): ? not delivering to service standards ? Provider Gap 4 (Communication Gap): ? not matching performance to promises 2-16 Provider Gap 1 CUSTOMER Customer expectations Perceived Service COMPANY Gap 1: The Listening Gap Company perceptions of customer expectations 2-17 Key Factors Leading to Provider Gap 1 2-18 Provider Gap 2 CUSTOMER COMPANY Customer-driven service designs and standards Gap 2: The Service Design and Standards Gap Company perceptions of customer expectations 2-19 Key Factors Leading to Provider Gap 2 2-20 Provider Gap 3 CUSTOMERCOMPANY Service delivery Customer-driven service designs and standards Gap 3: The Service Performance Gap 2-21 Key Factors Leading to Provider Gap 3 2-22 Provider Gap 4 CUSTOMER COMPANY Gap 4: The Communication Gap External Service delivery communications to customers 2-23 Key Factors Leading to Provider Gap 4 2-24 Gaps Model of Service Quality 2-25 Gaps Model of Service Quality Think about a service that you receive regularly and put yourself in the wish mode. How would you change the service and the way it is provided? 2-26 Gaps Model of Service Quality Think about a service that you receive regularly and put yourself in the wish mode.How would you change the service and the way it is provided? †¢ I wish my oil change service could be done at my home, or where I work, so that I would not have to drive to a specific location and wait in line. †¢ I wish my dry cleaning service would pick up clothes from my home and deliver them to my home. †¢ I wish my bank would allow me to make additional mortgage payments (or, student loan payments) online rather than having to physically go into the bank and execute a teller-assisted transaction. †¢ I wish my gas station would check under the hood of my car like they used to do many years ago. -27 Gaps Model of Service Quality †¢ If you were the manager of a service organization and wanted to apply the gaps model to improve service, which gap would you start with? †¢ Why? †¢ In what order would you proceed to close the gaps? 2-28 Gaps Model of Service Quality If you were the manager of a serv ice organization and wanted to apply the gaps model to improve service, which gap would you start with? Why? In what order would you proceed to close the gaps? The most efficient way to use the gaps model is to begin with provider gap 1, determining what customer expectations are.This allows the company to concentrate on the factors that will have the greatest impact on improving service quality. Following the gap 1 with gap 2, then gap 3 is the best progression. Gap 2 ideally would result in service design and service standards that are based on gap 1’s findings about customer expectations. Then gap 3, the most complicated gap to close, would be informed by what is found in the first two gaps. 2-29 Gaps Model of Service Quality †¢ Can provider gap 4, the communication gap, be closed prior to closing any of the other three provider gaps? †¢ How? 2-30 Gaps Model of Service QualityCan provider gap 4, the communication gap, be closed prior to closing any of the other t hree provider gaps? How? Gap 4, which deals with lowering customer expectations, can be closed at any time. While the first three gaps are concerned with raising company performance to meet expectations, gap 4 aims to lower customer expectations to meet perceptions. The two approaches to closing the customer gap operate on different principles and therefore can occur independently. Incidentally, closing gap 4 can be more economical than closing the other gaps. 2-31 Gaps Model of Service Quality Which of the four provider gaps do you believe is hardest to close? †¢ Why? 2-32 Gaps Model of Service Quality Which of the four provider gaps do you believe is hardest to close? Why? Gap 3 is the hardest to close because it requires coordination of all of the human resources issues in a company—training, incentives, communication, hiring, teamwork, and empowerment. Changing any one of these is difficult but changing them all, and getting them coordinated with each other, is extre mely challenging. In addition to the employee factors that must be considered in closing gap 3, the customer must be managed. -33 DETERMINANTS OF PERCEIVED SERVICE QUALITY Ways to Use Gap Analysis ? Overall Strategic Assessment: ? How are we doing overall in meeting or exceeding customer expectations? ? How are we doing overall in closing the four company gaps? ? Which gaps represent our strengths and where are our weaknesses? 2-35 Ways to Use Gap Analysis ? Specific Service Implementation ? Who is the customer? What is the service? ? Are we consistently meeting/exceeding customer expectations with this service? ? If not, where are the gaps and what changes are needed? (Examine gaps 1-4 for this particular service. ) 2-36